Saturday, September 09, 2006

Pertumbuhan dan Perkembangan Gigi

PERTUMBUHAN DAN PERKEMBANGAN DARI GIGI GELIGI

1. Pendahuluan
Pertumbuhan dan perkembangan gigi geligi dan prenatal dan posnatal yang kurang baik dapat meyebabkan kelainan pada struktur anatomis gigi.
Keadaan ini sangat merugikan baik dari segi estetik maupun kesehatan. Fungsi gigi geligi sebagai alat pencernaan dapat terganggu sehingga dapat menggangu intake makanan dan kesehatan secara umum.
Selain itu kelainan pertumbuhan dan perkembangan secara umum seperti pada ‘down syndrome’, kelainan ginjal, hipoparatiroidisme dan sebagainya juga dapat diikuti dengan kelainan pada gigi, sehingga hal ini semakin menjadi berat dan membutuhkan perhatian khusus.
Mengingat pentingnya peranan gigi geligi sebagai salah satu alat pencernaan maka pada makalah ini akan dibahas mengenai pertumbuhan dan perkembangan gigi geligi, serta kelainan-kelainan yang sering terjadi pada proses pertumbuhan dan perkembangannya.

2. Odontogenesis
Odontogenesis adalah proses terbentuknya jaringan gigi. Proses ini tidak terjadi pada waktu yang bersamaan untuk semua gigi.
Gigi dibentuk dari lapisan ektoderm, yaitu dari jaringan ektomesenkim. Ektomesenkim ini dibentuk dari ‘neural crest cells. Sel ini terdapat pada sepanjang sisi lateral dari neural plate.
Perkembangan gigi dimulai dengan pembentukan ‘primary dental lamina’, yang menebal dan meluas sepanjang daerah yang akan menjadi tepi oklusal dari mandibula dan maksila dimana gigi akan erupsi. Dental lamina ini tumbuh dari permukaan ke mesenchyme di bawahnya. Bersamaan dengan perkembangan dari primary dental lamina , pada 10 tempat di dalam mandibular arch and pada 10 tempat di dalam maxillary arch, beberapa sel dari dental lamina memperbanyak diri pada laju yang lebih cepat daripada yang berada di sekitar sel, dan 10 tonjolan kecil dari sel-sel epithel terbentuk pada dental lamina dalam tiap rahang.

Secara singkat pertumbuhan dan perkembangan dari gigi dapat dilihat pada gambar berikut ini.

Proses odontogenesis
A.Tahapan Dental lamina – invaginasi dari oral epithelium ke dalam jaringan pengubung di bawahnya (mesenchyme).
B.Tahapan enamel organ awal – pembentukan tunas dari epithelium dari dental lamina.
C.Tahapan kuman gigi – enamel organ, dental papilia, dental sac
D.Inisiasi dari pembentukan dentin dan enamel di dalam gigi.
E.Tahapan enamel organ & bantalan akar yang direduksi.
F.Tahapan erupsi aktif – pemecahan dari bantalan akar (root sheath) dan mulai pembentukan cementum.
G. Tahapan epithelium darurat dan gabungan - enamel epithelium yang direduksi menjadi epithelium gabungan dan gigi masuk rongga mulut.
H. Tahapan bidang occlusal – gigi dalam posisis fungsional.

3. Pertumbuhan dan perkembangan gigi sulung dan gigi tetap
Pertumbuhan dan perkembangan dari gigi geligi seperti halnya organ lainnya telah dimulai sejak 4 – 5 bulan dalam kandungan. Pada waktu lahir, maksila dan mandibwula merupakan tulang yang telah dipenuhi oleh benih-benih gigi dalam berbagai tingkat perkembangan. Tulang alveolar hanya dilapisi oleh mucoperiosteum yang merupakan bantalan dari gusi.
Pada saat lahir, tulang maksila dan mandibula terlihat mahkota gigi-gigi sulung telah terbentuk dan mengalami kalsifikasi, sedangkan benih gigi-gigi tetap masih berupa tonjolan epitel.
Pada umur 6 – 7 bulan telah terjadi erupsi dari gigi sulung dan pada umur 12 bulan gigi insisif pada maksila dan mandibula telah erupsi. Pada umur 2 ½ - 3 tahun semua gigi sulung telah erupsi dan email gigi-gigi sulung telah terbentuk sempuna.
Pertumbuhan dan perkembangan gigi ini terlihat pada tabel berikut ini :

GIGI SULUNG
Rahang Gigi Pembentukan Erupsi Akar lengkap

Atas Insisif pertama 4 bl inutero 7 ½ bl 1 ½ th
Insisif kedua 4 ½ bl inutero 9 bl 2 th
Caninus 5 bl inutero 18 bl 3 ½ th
Molar pertama 5 bl inutero 14 bl 2 ½ th
Molar kedua 6 bl inutero 24 bl 3 th
Bawah Insisif pertama 4 ½ bl inutero 7 bl 1 ½ th
Insisif kedua 4 ½ bl inutero 7 bl 1 ½ th
Caninus 5 bl inutero 16 bl 3 ½ th
Molar pertama 3 bl inutero 12 bl 2 ½ th
Molar kedua 6 bl inutero 20 bl 3 th



GIGI TETAP
Rahang Gigi Mulai terbentuk Erupsi Akar lengkap

Atas Insisif pertama 3 - 4 bl 7 – 8 th 10 tahun
Insisif kedua 10 - 12 bl 8 – 9 th 11 tahun
Caninus 4 – 5 bl 11 – 12 th 13 – 15 th
Premolar pertama 18-21 bl 10 – 12 th 12 – 14 th
Premolar kedua 30–33 bl 10 – 12 th 12 –14 th
Molar pertama 0 – 3 bl 6 – 7 th 9 – 10 th
Molar kedua 27 – 36 bl 12 – 13 th 14 – 16 th
Molar ketiga 7 – 9 th 17 – 21 th 18 – 25 th
Bawah Insisif pertama 3 – 4 bl 6 – 7 th 9 th
Insisif kedua 3 – 4 bl 7 – 8 th 10 th
Caninus 4 – 6 bl 9 – 10 th 12 – 14 th
Premolar pertama 18 – 24 bl 10 – 12 th 12 –13 th
Premolar kedua 24 – 30 bl 11 – 12 th 13 – 14 th
Molar pertama 0 – 3 bl 6 – 7 th 9 – 10 th
Molar kedua 2 – 3 th 11 – 13 th 14 – 15 th
Molar ketiga 8 – 10 th 17 – 21 th 18 – 25 th


3. Kelainan-kelainan Erupsi Gigi
3.1 Neonatal teeth
Kadang-kadang satu atau lebih gigi-gigi telah erupsi pada waktu kelahiran dikenal sebagai ‘neonatal teeth’. Keadaan ini biasanya merupakan rangkaian yang normal bukan merupakan gigi supernumerari, emailnya biasanya hipoplastik dan karena tidak terdapatnya pembentukan akar maka gigi tersebut biasanya hanya melekat saja dan tidak kencang.
Keadaan ini juga dapat terjadi pada beberapa kelainan sistemik dan sindrome berikut ini (Poole, Redford-Badwal, 1991) :

1.Ellis-van Creveld syndrome
2.Hallermann-Streiff syndrome
3.Pachyonychia congenita syndrome

3.2 “TEETHING” (pertumbuhan gigi)
Erupsi gigi geligi biasanya dimulai pada usia 5 atau 6 bulan. Tumbuhnya gigi pertama kali ditunggu dengan antusias oleh orang tua, karena hal ini merupakan awal dari perkembangan yang panjang. Pada kebanyakan kasus, erupsi gigi tidak menyebabkan anak maupun orang tua panik, tetapi kadang-kadang proses tersebut menyebabkan adanya iritasi lokal, yang biasanya ringan tetapi dapat cukup parah untuk mengganggu tidur anak. Insisivus susu yang kecil biasanya dapat erupsi tanpa kesulitan ; masalah “teething” biasanya muncul dengan erupsi gigi-gigi molar yang relatif lebih besar.
Gejala-gejala “teething” dapat terlihat baik secara lokal (Seward, 1971) dan secara sistemik (Seward, 1972a).
Lokal : Kemerahan atau pembengkakan gingiva pada regio yang akan erupsi.
Bercak eritema pada pipi.
Sistemik : gelisah dan menangis
Kehilangan nafsu makan
Tidak dapat tidur
Meningkatnya saliva dan saliva tersebut terus menetes
Nafsu makan berkurang
Rasa haus meningkat
Kemerahan pada tepi mulut
(Circum oral rash).


3.3 KISTA ERUPSI
Kista erupsi dapat berkembang dalam hubungan dengan gigi susu yang sedang erupsi. Rongga folikular yang normal di sekitar mahkota mengembang karena pengumpulan cairan jaringan atau darah, membentuk sejenis kista dentigerous (Shafer, Hine dan Levy, 1974 ; Shear, 1983). Kista erupsi terjadi paling sering pada permukaan oklusal yang lebar di gigi-gigi molar susu. Mula-mula terdapat daerah kebiru-biruan pada gigi yang sedang erupsi, dan kemudian terjadi kemerahan dan pembengkakan mukosa. Pembesaran kista menyebabkan tergigit oleh gigi-gigi lawannya, dan hal ini menambah rasa tidak enak pada anak.

3.4 ERUPSI TERTUNDA DARI GIGI-GIGI TETAP
Data perkembangan gigi yang diberikan pada tabel 11.2 tidak memperlihatkan bahwa terdapat variasi normal yang nyata diantara setiap anak. Walaupun keterlambatan erupsi gigi dapat dihubungkan dengan keadaan tertentu (misal sindroma down), kebanyakan kasus keterlambatan yang terlihat berada dalam batas-batas normal. Para orang tua harus diberi keyakinan, dan perkembangan oklusi harus diperiksa ulang. Bagaimanapun juga, karena gigi-gigi kontra lateralnya biasanya erupsi bersamaan, penundaan erupsi gigi lebih dari satu atau dua bulan memerlukan perhatian.
Keterlambatan erupsi yang terlokalisir lebih sering pada gigi geligi tetap dibandingkan pada gigi geligi susu; beberapa penyebabnya diberikan di bawah ini.
Insisivus: Resorpsi yang terlambat pada insisivus susu setelah trauma dan kematian pulpa.
Dilaserasi
Gigi-gigi kelebihan (supernumerary teeth)
Kehilangan gigi susu yang sangat dini, diikuti oleh perkembangan tulang dalam soket gigi
Kaninus : jalur erupsi kaninus rahang atas tidak sebagaimana mestinya
Premolar : Impaksi ke arah gigi-gigi lain disebabkan karena angulasi abnormal atau berjejal-jejal.
Resorpsi terhambat pada molar susu.
Molar susu terpendam
Molar : Impaksi ke arah gigi-gigi lain ; khususnya mengenai molar ketiga.

Keadaan-keadaan lain seperti kista dentigerous, dapat mengenai setiap gigi.

4. KELAINAN-KELAINAN PADA STRUKTUR GIGI
Jaringan-jaringan gigi dibentuk dalam dua tahap, mula-mula diendapkan matriks organik dan kemudian mineralisasi terjadi. Gangguan pada salah satu dari tahap-tahap ini dapat menyebabkan kelainan-kelainan pada struktur gigi yang penting, khususnya email.
Gangguan pengendapan matriks menyebabkan hipoplasia, ditandai oleh adanya email yang tidak teratur ketebalannya atau strukturnya tidak sempurna.
Gangguan pada tahap kedua perkembangan menyebabkan hipomineralisasi, walaupun email mempunyai ketebalan normal, setidak-tidaknya sebagian dari padanya mempunyai mineralisasi yang buruk.

4.1 Hipoplasia dan Hipomineralisasi yang disebabkan faktor Lokal
Perkembangan gigi-gigi tetap dapat rusak oleh karena trauma atau infeksi yang berhubungan dengan gigi susu.
Intrusi atau pergeseran insisivus susu yang parah akibat trauma dapat mempengaruhi insisivus tetap yang sedang berkembang. Makin besar trauma yang mengenai muka anak pada waktu terkena kecelakaan, makin besar kemungkinan email gigi tetap akan menjadi hipoplastik. Jika kecelakaan terjadi setelah usia 4 tahun, hipomineralisasi lebih sering terjadi dari pada hipoplasia, yang tampak sebagai bercak-bercak putih atau kecoklatan pada permukaan labial.
Trauma karena pencabutan gigi molar susu dapat merusakkan premolar yang sedang berkembang, khususnya sewaktu anak berusia dibawah 4 – 5 tahun, pada saat perkembangan premolar pada tahap awal.
Hal yang sama macam kerusakan yang dapat disebabkan oleh infeksi gigi sulung tergantung pada tahap perkembangan gigi tetap penggantinya.

4.2 Hipoplasia dan hipomineralisasi yang disebabkan faktor sistemik
Sampai saat kelahiran semua gigi sulung terlindung dari semua gangguan sistemik yang paling parah, oleh karena itu email prenatal biasanya mempunyai struktur yang homogen. Kelainan pada email postnatal biasanya dihubungkan dengan kelainan sistemik pada waktu kelahiran atau selama perkembangan postnatal. Faktor-faktor tersebut antara lain adala amelogenesis imperfekta (genetis), kelainan metabolisme, seperti fenil ketonurea, hipokalsemia, anemia hemolitik, endokrinopati seperti hipoparatiroidisme, nefropati, penyakit hepar, penyakit gastro intestinal yang menyebabkan gangguan penyerapan fluor.

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